Reading: Read an Academic Passage

To say that something is caused by or belongs to a particular person, thing, or reason.

“Most geologists attribute the canyon's depth to millions of years of river erosion.”

“The decline in bee populations has been attributed to pesticide use rather than to disease alone.”

Often used: attribute X to Y · widely attributed to · commonly attributed

TOEFL tip: In cause-and-effect questions, scan for 'attributed to' — the phrase marks the author's explanation of a cause, which is often the answer to a 'Why does X happen?' question.

To mention something as an example, reason, or piece of supporting evidence.

“The author cites three studies to support this conclusion.”

“Economists frequently cite rising fuel costs as the main factor.”

Often used: cite evidence · cite an example · commonly cited

TOEFL tip: Rhetorical Purpose answers often begin 'To cite an example of...' — confirm the example actually illustrates the claim just made.

Large in amount, degree, or importance.

“The project required a considerable investment of labor.”

“There is considerable variation among the specimens.”

Often used: considerable evidence · considerable variation · a considerable degree

TOEFL tip: Don't confuse 'considerable' (large) with 'considerate' (kind); the confusion appears in TOEFL vocabulary distractors.

To be opposite to or in conflict with another statement or piece of evidence.

“The new findings contradict the accepted timeline of glacial retreat.”

“His two accounts of the journey contradict each other in several details.”

Often used: contradict the evidence · directly contradict · appear to contradict

TOEFL tip: Negative Factual ('NOT mentioned / EXCEPT') items often reward spotting the sentence that contradicts a tempting choice.

An idea proposed as a possible explanation that must still be tested.

“One hypothesis holds that the dinosaurs died out after an asteroid impact.”

“The researchers designed an experiment to test the hypothesis directly.”

Often used: test a hypothesis · propose a hypothesis · support the hypothesis

TOEFL tip: Science passages often present two competing hypotheses; note which one the author's evidence finally favors, as this is a classic Prose Summary point.

To suggest something indirectly without stating it openly.

“The author implies that early maps were symbolic rather than accurate.”

“These findings imply a much earlier date of human settlement.”

Often used: strongly imply · the passage implies · imply that

TOEFL tip: Inference questions frequently ask what a paragraph 'implies'; the correct answer is a small logical step from the text, never a large assumption.

An idea or belief about something, often one that is questionable.

“The notion that memory works like a video recording has been discredited.”

“New data challenge the notion of a single migration route.”

Often used: challenge the notion · the notion that · popular notion

TOEFL tip: 'The notion that' usually introduces a belief the author will question — read the following sentence for the rebuttal.

Used to show that you think something is probably true, although you are not certain.

“The pottery fragments were buried together, presumably because they came from a single household.”

“Presumably the author had access to records that have since been lost.”

Often used: presumably because · presumably due to · would presumably

TOEFL tip: In Inference questions, a sentence with 'presumably' signals the author is guessing, not stating fact — so the correct answer will be hedged ('may', 'likely'), never an absolute claim.

Important, well known, or easily noticed.

“A prominent feature of the landscape is the ridge running east to west.”

“She became the most prominent critic of the accepted theory.”

Often used: a prominent role · prominent figure · most prominent feature

TOEFL tip: 'Prominent' can mean physically noticeable or socially important; use the surrounding noun to choose the right synonym.

To state firmly that something is true, often without giving proof.

“Critics assert that the survey ignored rural populations entirely.”

“The passage asserts a link between deforestation and local rainfall decline.”

Often used: assert that · boldly assert · assert a claim

TOEFL tip: Rhetorical Purpose questions often use stance verbs in the answer choices; 'assert' means the author states without evidence, so don't pick it when the paragraph actually presents data — pick 'demonstrate' or 'establish' instead.

A difference between two things that should be the same, which suggests something is wrong.

“Researchers noted a discrepancy between the fossil record and the genetic evidence.”

“The discrepancy in the dating results forced scientists to retest the samples.”

Often used: a significant discrepancy · account for the discrepancy · discrepancy between

TOEFL tip: When a science passage introduces a 'discrepancy', the following paragraphs almost always propose explanations — expect a Purpose question asking why the discrepancy was mentioned (answer: to introduce a problem the new theory solves).

A statement or idea that is accepted as true and used as the basis for an argument.

“The entire theory rests on the premise that early humans migrated in small groups.”

“If the premise is flawed, the conclusion cannot be trusted.”

Often used: underlying premise · based on the premise · false premise

TOEFL tip: Passages that evaluate competing theories often name the 'premise' first and then attack it; locate that noun to answer questions asking what an argument assumes rather than what it proves.

In addition to what has already been said, and often more importantly.

“The soil is poor; moreover, the growing season is extremely short.”

“Moreover, the technique requires no specialized equipment.”

Often used: moreover, the evidence · moreover, it is · and moreover

TOEFL tip: In Insert Text questions, 'Moreover' must follow a sentence making a similar point, never a contrasting one.

Used to compare two things by showing how they differ.

“Deciduous trees shed their leaves annually, whereas conifers retain theirs.”

“Whereas the northern colony grew rapidly, the southern one stagnated.”

Often used: whereas in contrast · whereas others · whereas previously

TOEFL tip: Sentence Simplification answers must keep 'whereas' contrasts intact; eliminate options that merge the two contrasted ideas into one.

Used to introduce an idea or situation that is the opposite of the one just mentioned.

“Warm currents raise coastal temperatures; conversely, cold currents suppress them.”

“Conversely, species with short lifespans adapt to environmental change far more quickly.”

Often used: conversely, however · and conversely · conversely, when

TOEFL tip: In Insert Text questions, 'conversely' at the start of the inserted sentence means the sentence before it must state the opposite case — test each square by checking for that reversal.